best comment

hallo reader, good night..
oke, tonight I going to post my best comment in class a blog

 

 

 

 

okeee mungkin memnag cuma komentar saya sampai saat ini -_-

Semantics

Hallo reader... Assalamualaikum, apa kabar hari ini ?

ok, pada kesempatan kali ini saya akan mencoba sedikit membahas mengenai Semantics.

        Semantik adalah bagian dari linguistik yang berbicara tentang makna. Semantik  tidak membahas tentang strukturalis kalimat. Tapi kadang-kadang kita harus membuat kalimat yang baik dengan strukturalis yang baik dan memiliki arti.

        Ada beberapa jenis semantik yang kita harus tahu, yaitu:

• Polysemy

Polisemi dikenal sebagai "many meanings", karena dalam kata morfologi yang sama mungkin memiliki berbagai arti yang berbeda dibeberapa kamus.

Misalnya: "see" memiliki banyak arti, seperti:

- Perceive with the eyes, discern visually.

-Discern or deduce mentally after reflection or from information.

-Meet (someone one knows) socially or buy change.

-Escort or conduct (someone) to a specified place.

• Synonymy

Sinonim adalah beberapa kata memiliki pengertian yang sama atau nilai untuk semua fitur semantik, meskipun fitur ini selalu parsial atau tidak pernah selesai.

Misalnya: “friend” have the synonymys as “comrade”, “acquantaince”, “pal”, and “buddy”.

• Hyponymy

Hyponymy terkait dengan saling melengkapi dan ketidakcocokan, yang berarti bahwa kata yang maknanya berisi seluruh arti kata lain, atasan (hypernym).

Misalnya: “apple” is a fruit but a “fruit” is not refers to “apple”

• Antonymy

Antonimi adalah hubungan antara kata-kata menunjukkan oppositeness makna.

Ada beberapa jenis antonymy yaitu:

-Antonymity : big/small ; good/bad ; beautiful/ugly ; etc.

-Complementarity : male/female ; alive/died; sky/earth ; etc.

-Converseness : buy/sell ; push/pull ; give/take ; etc.

• Idiomaticity

Idiom adalah bentuk bahasa berupa gabungan kata, yang makna katanya tidak dapat diartikan dari makna unsur gabungan.

 Misalnya: a blind allery (route that leads nowhere) ; kick the bucket (die); put down (kill); etc.

Cukup sekian informasi dari saya mengenaui semantics, semoga bermanfaat. wassalamaualaikum.

SOURCE :

A Linguistics Primer for Malaysians by Loga Mahesan Baskaran

An Introduction to Linguistics by  Loreto Todd

One of Example Research Question

question and conclution :

What is lexicology ?

Lexico    : from Greek “speech” or “word”
Logos    : “learning” or “science”

So, lexicology is the study of the history and structure of the vocabulary of a language. Lexicology is the part of linguistics which studies words.

 The aim of lexicology is to define the essence of words.

•  Lexicology studies word formation, semasiology, etymological characteristics of words,phraseological units, lexicography and so on. 
• Lexicology deals with the vocabulary and characteristic features of words and word-groups.
• The term “vocabulary” is used to denote the system of words and word-groups that the language possesses.
• The term “word” denotes the main lexical unit of a language resulting from the association of a group of sounds with a meaning.
• The term ‘word-group” denotes a group of words  which exists in the language as a ready-made unit,has the unity of meaning, the unity of syntactical function.

 According to the theorotical basis of the vocabularies of different languages there are three types of them:

•  Historical lexicology

    deals with the historic change of words in the course of language development.

• Descriptive lexicology

    deals with the vocabulary of a given language at a period of time.

• Contrastive lexicology

    studies languages from the point of view of their identity and differentation

Lexicology is closely connected with other branch of linguistics:

•  The connection between lexicology and phonetics

    Phoneticsis the study and systematic classificatio of the sounds made in spoken utterance, that is, the study of speech sounds. It is closely related  to lexicology. Whitout sound there is no word because every word is a unity of sounds and meaning.

• The connection between lexicology and grammar

    The importance of connection between lexicology with vocabulary/grammar it’s in thr form of words and a combination of words in sentences

• The connection between lexicology and stylistics

    Stylistics is concerned with language variety differing according to user rather than user. Example:
My beloved parent has breathed his last (composed of modifier+subject+verb+object) the stylistics range is a achieved by means of different word choices.

• The connection between lexicology and historical linguistics

    Historical linguistics studies words from the view-point of diachrony, whereas lexicology studiest words from the view-point of both synchrony and diachrony, but especially of synchrony.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lexicology
http://doclecture.net/1-25289.html
http://ecmd.nju.edu.cn/UploadFile/11/5185/conne.doc

Subject-Verb Agreement

• BASIC SUBJECT-VERB AGREEMENT

Singular Verb	Plural Verb
(a) My friend lives in Boston	(b) My friends live in Boston	Verb + s/es= third person in the                           Simple present tense Noun + s/es= plural
	(c) My brother and sister live in Boston (d) My brother, sister, and cousin live in Boston	Two or more subjects connected by and require a plural verb
(e) Every man, woman, and chils needs love. (f) Each book and  magazine is listed in  the card catalog		EXCEPTION: Every and each are always followed immediately by singular nouns. In this case, even when there are two or more nouns connected by and, the verb is singular.
(g) That book on political paties is interesting. (h) My dog, as weel as my cats, likes cat food. (i) The book that I got from my parents was very interesting	(j) The ideas in that book are interesting. (k) My dogs, as well as my cats my cat, like cat food (l) The books I bought at the bookstore were expensive.	Sometimes a phrase or clause separates a subject from its verb. These interrupimg structures do not affect basic agreement.  For example: In (g) the interrupting prepositional phrase on political parties does not change the fact that the verb is must agree with the subject  book.  In (i) and (l): the subject and verb are separated by an adjective clause.
(m) Growing flowers is her hobby.		A gerund used as the subject of the sentence requires a singular verb

• SUBJECT-VERB AGREEMENT: USING EXPRESSIONS OF QUANTITY

Singular Verb	Plural verb
(a) Some of the book is good. (b) A lot of the equipment is new. (c) Two-thirds of the money is mine.	(d) Some of the books are good. (e) A lot of my friends are here. (f) Two-thirds of the pennies are mine.	In most expressions of quantity, the verb is determined by noun or pronoun thet follows of. For example: In (a) : some of + singular noun =  singular verb In (d) : some of + plural noun =plural verb
(g) One of my friends is here (h) Each of my friends is here (i) Every one of my friends is here		EXCEPTION: One of, each of, and every one of take singular verbs One of + plural noun = singular verb Each of + plural noun = singular verb Every one of + plural noun = singular verb
(j) None of the boys is here	(k) None of the boys are here. (informal)	Subject with none of are considered singular in very formal English, bur plural verb are often used in informal speech writing.
(l) The number of students in the class is fifteen	(m) A numbers of student were late for class	COMPARE: in (l): the number is the subject. In (m) : a number of is an expression of quantity meaning “a lot of”. It is followed by a plural noun and a plural verb.

Syntax

Definisi syntax menurut beberapa pakar linguistics dunia:

"Syntax is the study of the principles and processes by which sentences are constructed in particular languages. Syntactic investigation of a given language has as its goal the construction of a grammar that can be viewed as a device of some sort for producing the sentences of the language under analysis."(Noam Chomsky, 2002:11)

Chomsky mengatakan bahwa syntax adalah mata pelajaran tentang prinsip-prinsip dan proses-proses dimana kalimat disusun dalam bahasa tertentu. Penelitian tentang syntax pada bahasa tertentu memiliki tujuannya tersendiri dimana susunan grammar  dapat dilihat sebagai alat untuk menghasilkan sebuah kalimat dalam sebuah bahasa. Pakar lain yang menjelaskan definisi syntax adalah Matthew, dikutip oleh Van Vallin dan LaPolla (1997:1), ia mengatakan:

‘The term ‘syntax’ is from the Ancient Greek syntaxis, a verbal noun which literally means “arrangement” or “setting out together”. Traditionally, it refers to the branch of grammar dealing with the ways in which words, with or without appropriate inflections, are arranged to show connections of meaning within the sentence.’

Matthew menjelaskan bahwa istilah syntax diambil dari noun verbal bahasa Yunani kuno yang secara literlek berarti “susunan”. Umumnya, syntax mengacu pada bidang grammar yang menerangkan tentang cara-cara bagaimana kata-kata, dengan ataupun tanpa infleksi, disusun untuk menunjukkan hubungan makna dalam kalimat. Senada dengan penjelasan Matthew, Van Valin (2001:1) mengungkapkan inti tentang syntax itu sendiri sebagai berikut:

‘First and foremost, syntax deals with how sentences are constructed, and users of human language employ a striking variety of possible arrangements of the element in sentences.’

Menurut Van Vallin hal pertama dan paling utama adalah bahwa syntax itu membahas bagaimana kalilmat itu disusun, dan syntax juga membahas bagaimana manusia sebagai umat yang berbahasa menggunakan berbagai variasi tentang susunan-susunan element tersebut dalam kalimat.

Dari beberapa pengertian, dapat disimpulkan bahwa Syntax adalah ilmu yang mempelajari struktur-struktur kalimat. Dalam syntax kita diajarkan susunan-susnan tata bahasa yang sesuai dengan aturan. Terdapat 2 bagian yang ada di syntax, yakni:

1. Phrase, adalah sekelompok kata yang mempunyai fungsi.
Phrase terbagi menjadi 5, yakni:

• Noun Phrase, adalah phrase yang berasal dari kata benda/kata yang bisa dihitung (noun).
• Verb Phrase, adalah phrase yang terdiri dari gabungan kata kerja bantu (axiliary verb) dan kata kerja (verb).
• Adjective Phrase, adalah phrase yang berasal dari kata sifat (adjective) dan digunakan untuk memberikan sifat untuk kata benda (nouns).
• Adverbial Phrase, adalah phrase yang berasal dari kata keterangan.
• Prepositional Phrase, adalah phrase gabungan antara kata depan (preposition) dan kata kerja (noun) maupun kata ganti (pronoun).

2. Clause, adalah bentuk kata yang berdiri sendiri sebagai suatu kalimat.
Clause terbagi menjadi 2, yakni:

• Independent Clause, adalah clause yang memiliki struktur lengkap.
• Dependent Clause, adalah clause yang memiliki struktur tidak lengkap.

Sumber :
http://www.englishindo.com/2011/01/apa-sih-syntax-itu.html?m=1
http://linguisticbydebbymaitrisia.blogspot.ae/2016/04/syntax.html?m=1

Phonology

What is phonology ?

Phonology is a branch of linguistics concerned with the systematic organization of sounds in languages. It has traditionally focused largely on the study of the systems of phonemes in particular language (and therefore used to be also called phonemics, or phonematics), but it may also cover any linguistics analysis either at a level beneath the word (including syllabe,onset and rime, articulatory gestures, articulatory features, mora, etc.) or at all levels of language where sounds is considered to be structured for conveying linguistics meaning. Phonology also includes the study of equivalent organizational systems in sign languages.

 

Phonetics vs. phonology

 

Phonetics deals with the production of speech sounds by humans, often without prior knowledge of the language being spoken. Phonology is about patterns of sounds, especially different patterns of sounds in different languages, or within each language, different patterns of sounds in different positions in words etc. 

Phonology as grammar of phonetic patterns
 The consonant cluster /st/ is OK at the beginning, middle or end of words in English.

• At beginnings of words, /str/ is OK in English, but /ftr/ or /tr/ are not (they are ungrammatical).
• /tr/ is OK in the middle of words, however, e.g. in "ashtray".
• /tr/ is OK at the beginnings of words in German, though, and /ftr/ is OK word-initially in Russian, but not in English or German. 

For example, the glottal stop [] occurs in both English and Arabic BUT ...

In English, at the beginning of a word, [] is a just way of beginning vowels, and does not occur with consonants. In the middle or at the end of a word, [] is one possible pronunciation of /t/ in e.g. "pat" [pa].

In Arabic, // is a consonant sound like any other (/k/, /t/ or whatever): [íktib] "write!", [daíia] "minute (time)", [a] "right"

Phonemes and allophones, or sounds and their variants

The vowels in the English words "cool", "whose" and "moon" are all similar but slightly different. They are three variants or allophones of the /u/ phoneme. The different variants are dependent on the different contexts in which they occur. Likewise, the consonant phoneme /k/ has different variant pronunciations in different contexts. Compare:
 

keep	/kip/	The place of articulation is fronter in the mouth	[k+h]
cart	/kt/	The place of articulation is not so front in the mouth	[kh]
coot	/kut/	The place of articulation is backer, and the lips are rounded	[khw]
seek	/sik/	There is less aspiration than in initial position	[k`]
scoop	/skup/	There is no aspiration after /s/	[k]

These are all examples of variants according to position (contextual variants). There are also variants between speakers and dialects.

source:

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phonology

http://www.phon.ox.ac.uk/jcoleman/PHONOLOGY1.htm

A Linguistics Primer for Malaysians. Loga Mahesan Baskaran. University of Malay Press. 2005