MID TEST OF INTRODUCTION TO SOCIOLINGUISTICS

SHELA SAFHIRA
VA

 
1. What is sociolinguistics?

Answer:

Sociolinguistics is the branches of linguistics that study about language in social.Sociolinguistics comes from socio and linguistics.Socio is the relationship between one people to another people and make the interaction and have the purposes.Linguistics is the language that is used by the people for do the interaction with the other people. .So,sociolinguistics is the language that used by the people when they speak with other people to make understanding each other and make interaction for get their purpose.But,the language that is used by the people  have differentiate in each other like dialect and accent because they have different culture and also their region.Like dialect,in every language have different grammar,vocabulary and pronunciation in each country and also,accent has differentiate pronunciation suitable with their country.For example like the people from Bataknees it will be different with the way of javaness dialect and accent.

2. Why do we learn Sociolinguistic? 

Answer:

Sociolinguistics is the study of language that use in social environment. language is the essential thing that people need to communicate, share and get the information, feeling, ideas, etc.We live in social environment called society. so, it show that we must learn and comprehend our understanding of sociolinguistics to communicate with others in our environment. the advantages of learn sociolinguistic are; to increase our awareness that every region has different language, dialect and accent then, we know the different characteristics of language that used in different region, the different culture of people in different region, we also know that social factors such as class and gender influence the language too. and we can get many vocabulary of language in a region to communicate with people around the region.

3. What is the relationship between language and society?

Answer :

Language and society have a closed realtioship both of them.Because of what?because when we talk with the people,we use language,when we needs the people help,we use language.All of our activities use language and all of aour activities use language and social to make a good interaction between one people to another people and create the good understanding and comprehension.Language exist because there are the society that use them for do interaction.And the society used the language in all their activities.If there is no language,we as the society will find the difficulties when we talk and misunderstanding will be exist.Language will develop if its society develop too and language will be lost if its society not develop their language.And develop the language is influenced by the people.it make the language has a closed relationship with society.Because they can not separate.

4. Please mention and explain the branches of linguistics!

 Answer:

 The Branches of linguistics; 

• Phonetics, the study of the physical properties of sounds of human language 
• Phonology, the study of sounds as discrete, abstract elements in the speaker's mind that distinguish meaning 
• Morphology, the study of internal structures of words and how they can be modified 
• Syntax, the study of how words combine to form grammatical sentences 
• Semantics, the study of the meaning of words (lexical semantics) and fixed word combinations (phraseology), and how these combine to form the meanings of sentences 
• Pragmatics, the study of how utterances are used (literally, figuratively, or otherwise) in communicative acts 
• Discourse analysis, the analysis of language use in texts (spoken, written, or signed) 
• Applied linguistic is the branch of linguistic that is most concerned with application of the concepts in everyday life, including language-teaching.

5. What is standard language?giving an example!

Answer :

Standard language is a variety of language that is used by governments,in the media,in schools and for international communication.For example,in different regional dialect and these non-standard varieties are different from each other.

6. Elaborating the language, dialect, and accent please!

Answer :
Language is the essential system that human need to communicate with others by spoken or written to sharing or receiving our feeling, ideas, information, etc.

Dialect is the variety of language that describes the specific region distinguished by pronunciation, grammar, and/or vocabulary.

Accent is the specific ways to pronounce or stress a language.

7. Giving an example of formal and informal language

Answer:

Formal language

            A: may I help you ?

            B: yes, of course! open the door please, thank you.

            A: you are welcome

 Informal language:

            A:I go to market in this morning

            B: ok, take care 

8.What aspects of language are sociolinguistics interested in?

Answer :

Sociolinguistics interested in different language,dialect and accents or social context.because the people can know about variety of language in sociolingusitics and can learn it.

9. When two or more people from different language met and tried to communicate, what should they do?

Answer :  

-Pidgins is a restricted language which arises for the purposes of communication between two social groups of which one is in a more dominant position than the other

- Creoles is a language that was originally a pidgin but has become nativized, i.e. a community of speakers claims it as their first language.

- Lingua Franca is a language used to communicate between people who speak different languages natively.
So, they should use lingua franca because lingua franca do not eliminate the original language or produce a new language 

10.Why do people switch and mix a language?

Answer:

There are some factor that make the people switch and mix the language

1.Because not at all the people full understanding with the language that is use when they speak.It make the people to do switch and mix and did not happen miss understanding each other.For example,when the someone with javaness talk with their friend that have the javaness too,and than their other friend that have malay comes and join to speak with them,so they must switch their language that third of them understanding.

2.If there are switch and mix,the people can know or learn the new language that before they did not know what the meaning is.it can be one of way to know some vocabularywhen they use mixing when they speak.

3.The people think that if they do switch and mix,they feel so cool because they know the other language.

11. Giving an example of code switching and code mixing?

Answer :

Code switching

A: gimana ni aku khawatir banget

B: keep calm, cause everithing is gonna be ok

A: ok, I can try 

Code mixing

oh my god aku telat bangun in the morning

Speech Community

·         Group 5
Ratna Sari

·        Rumintang Harianja

·        Asep Sukroko

 

Speech Community is a group of people who speak the same language and share the same dialect, words and grammar rules of a language as a standard. These individuals also share the understanding of at least one language so that they may communicate with each other.

Example: In transgender communities, they use particular vocabulary such as “akika” to change the word “aku” and “begindang” to change the word “begitu”. When they making transaction, “berapose” that means “berapa” or to say “benar” by saying “ember”.

In Speech communities, there are:

1.     Intersecting communities: language that used from communities such as like we know people is baliness, batakness, sundaness by looking their word, accent, intonation and also dialect.

  .      Network and repertoire:  it is show that a person can be part of various speech communities by an interaction in network and repertoires is various language variotion that have got from network.

Questions:

1.      Is slang include of speech communities?

2.      Is it possible one speech communities used by the other communities?

3.      Why speech communities exist?

Answers:

1    - Yes, it is. Because slang is created from communities and it expand to be an informal language for some country that they often use slang in their communities.

2   -yes, it is possible. But it can be a good or bad word, if the user use it correctly and know that meaning.
-to make the people in community are enjoyable to interact each other and to  improve their language abilities that used in social activities

 

 The conclusion
Speech communities is a group of speakers who share a language and patterns of a language use.it means that,speech communities is a group of people who speak the same language and share the same dialect,words,and grammar rules of a language as a standard.The fact that people do use expression such as javanesse speech,sundas speech,and balis speech indicates that they have some idea of how a typical person from each place reffered to as intersecting communities.Network and repertoires is show that a person can be part of various speech communities,some that intersect and some that do not. 

 

 

Code Switching and Code Mixing

Code Switching and Code Mixing

Group 4:
Ade Gustia Putri
Indah Ayu Widuna

As a teacher,what is benefit to learn code switching and code mixing?
Answer :
As a teacher,Study about code switching and code mixing have a benefit like when we teach the student in the class,for example when we teach English in the class,we can switch our language when the students that don’t understand what we say.We can change our language  that understood by students.
Code Mixing can use when we teach in the class.we can combine our language to make our tudents understand what we mean.And than students can add their vocabulary.

Is it suitable when we used code mixing in the school or public?Why?
Answer:
Yes,it is.Because I think when we speak with code mixing in the school,student can learn the other language.For example when we speak bahasa and English,the student can know the new vocabulary.But,we can’t do it in every place,we must know the place that suitable because if we always use it,it can makes our nation languge will be lost.

What is differenciate between English and Arabian code mixing?
Answer:
English and Arabian have a different system and rule in their language in make code mixing.So that,we learn it with different way.

Conclusion
Code switching is the alternation of the use of at least two languages or their varieties or styles in the same conversation in bilingual community.Bilingual people often switch codes from one language to other language when they speak or write.Code switching not only occurs in the form of language change but also may happen in the change of the variant of language.
Code Mixing is the change of one language to another within the same utterance or in the same oral/written text.it is common phenomenon in societies in which two or more languages are used,usually without a change of topic

Sociolinguistics : Pidgins and Creols

1.      Please give more explanantion about Pidgins and Creols! ( Fajrin Suhaila )

Answer:

A Pidgin or a language is a simplified language that develops as a means of communication between two or more groups that do not have a common language like in the trade or market.Pidgin is new language that made by small community for communication because they have different language.

Creols is develop from pidgin and change be mother thoung for example like betawi language,minang ect.


2.      What is the adventages learn pidgins and cleos for the teacher? (Syahfitri )

Answer:

When we teach our students,we can add the student’s knowledge with the other materi so that the students be antusiamism with our materi and they can know new language.


3.      What is relationship among Pidgins,Creols and Sociolinguistics? ( Annisa Septiani )

Answer:

Pidgin,creols and sociolinguistics have a relationship because they are the language that use when the people do communication.Pidgin is the language that make by the people when they tread because they have many language.And than Creols is mother tongue that is develop from pidgin and they connected by lingua franca.So,this make pidgin,creoles and sociolinguistics have a relationship because they are language for communication in social.


Conclusion

Pidgin is the new language that made by small community for their communication because each people have different language and they can communication if there have new language.After that,language develop be creoles.Creoles is the mother tongue.And than,all the language connected by lingua franca,because we have the different language so that there is no miscommunication happen.

sociolinguistics : language, dialeg and varieties

Unless a human being has a physical or mental disability, he or she will be born with the capacity for language: the innate ability to speak a language, or in the case of someone who is deaf, to sign a language (i.e. use gestures to communicate). his capacity does not involve any kind of  learning – a young child, for instance, does not need to be taught to speak or sign – and occurs in predictable stages, beginning with the babbling cries of an infant and culminating in the full speaking abilities of an adult.Language is many things; it can be a system of communication, a medium for thought, vehicle for literary expression, a matter for political controversy, a catalyst for nation building (O’Grady & Dobrovolsky, 1989: 1 in Imansyah, 2008:1).

The terms of variety language are emerged due to different systems reflecting different varieties of the human condition. Variety is a specific set of ‘linguistic items’ or ‘human speech patterns’ (presumably, sounds, words, grammatical features, etc.) which we can connect with some external factor apparently, a geographical area or a social group (Hudson, 1996; Ferguson, 1972 and Wardhaugh, 2006).

Wardhaugh (2006) distinguish the terms language and dialect as follow:Lower part of variety language is dialect and as the main part is language, therefore we can say that Texas English and Swiss German are dialects of English and German. Some languages have more than one dialect for instance English are spoken in various dialects.



Questions :


Why sociolect related to social background rather than geographical background? (Mike)

            Answer: social background is the social language that we used in daily activities in our social group. But, geographical backgroud is the language that we used in our region. Example: someone who come from Sumatra Barat, based on his region, he used minang language( geographical background). But, when he move to Java, by the time his dialect will be change to java language because his social group used java language( social backgorund).



Please show more example of regional dialect and sicial dialect? (Ratna)

            Answer: regional dialect: ma lay language(Riau), minang language(west Sumatra), batak language(North Sumatra). social dialect: teacher-students, parents-children, manager-staff(social group)


Explain differentiate between language and dialect! (Asep)

            Answer: language is a way from many region to communication. Whatever language, minangness, java, and another. Language only one. Dialect have many differend between regional, include intonation, the way dialect is produces, and other.


How can language have many differences, example language a country different to another country? (TM)

            Answer: people live in difference regional and social background. Wilayah dan lingkungan sosial mempengaruhi lahirnya suatu bahasa, karena setiap orang di setiap wilayah membutuhkan bahasa untuk berkomunikasi dengan orang yang ada di lingkungan sekitarnya.


At pages 28 in our course book, language and dialect is ambiguous term. So what is mean?? (Desi)

            Answer: No one really knows what is language real mean. Sometimes language have ambigu meaning. Example : Iam fine, means someon still in good condition or good feeling. But in Fact, Iam fine is not always means okay, but also, something wrong happened with someone’s feeling. By that case, we see that language and dialect is ambiguous.


Conclusion

Every language have variation and dialect. Its depend on the region and social background.

SOCIOLINGUISTIC (1)

INTRODUCTION TO

SOCIOLINGUISTIC

1.    Definition of Sociolinguistic

            Sociolinguists is the study of the relationship between language and society. They are interested in explaining why we speak differently in different social contexts, and they are concerned with identifying the social functions of language and the ways it is used to convey social meaning. Examining the way people use language in different social contexts provides a wealth of information about the way language works, as well as about the social relationships in a community, and the way people convey and construct aspects of their social identity through their language.

            Sociolinguistics is concerned with the relationship between language and the context in which it is used.

a.      Definition Sociolinguistic by Expert

1)       William Labov has called sociolinguistics secular linguistics, "in reaction to the contention among many linguists working in a broadly Chomskyanframework that language can be dissociated from its social functions" (Key Thinkers in Linguistics and the Philosophy of Language, 2005).

2)      Rubén Chacón-Beltrán  In An Introduction to Sociolinguistics (2013),  observes that in sociolinguistics “the stress is placed on language and its role within communication. Sociology of language, however, centers on the study of society and how we can understand it through the study of language."

3)      Hudson (1996), Sociolinguistics is “The study of language in relation to sociey…”

There are  two type of  Sociolinguistic (Sociolinguistics and Sociology of Language), are:

-          Sociolinguistics: It’s main focus is “Society on Language”

-          Sociology of Language: It’s main focus is “Languages effects on society”

b.      Expert of Sociolinguistic

1)      William Labov (1972- US)

            American linguist, widely regarded as the founder of the discipline of variationist sociolinguistics. He has been described as "an enormously original and influential figure who has created much of the methodology" of sociolinguistics. He is employed as a professor in the linguistics department of the University of Pennsylvania, and pursues research in sociolinguistics, language change, and dialectology.

2)      Basil Bernstein (1924 - 2000)- UK)

            British sociologist and linguist, known for his work in the sociology of education. Basil Bernstein made a significant contribution to the study of communication with his sociolinguistic theory of language codes.

2.      Concept of Sociolinguistic

a.      Main Concepts in sociolinguistics

1)      SpeechCommunity:Discrete group of people who use language in a unique and mutually accepted way among themselves.

2)      High/LowPrestigeVarieties:Speech habits are assigned a positive or a negative value which is then applied to the speaker.

3)      Social Network:A particular speech community in terms of relations between individual members in a community.

4)      I-Language and E-Language:Internal language applies to the study of syntax and semantics in language on the abstract level; External language applies to language in social contexts, i.e. behavioral habits shared by a community.

b.      Other important concepts in Sociolinguistic

1)      Standard Language

Standard language refers to mode of usage of most educated speakers of a language and established as the prestigious form of that language. This term is also used for that variety of a language which is considered to be the norm.

2)      Non Standard Language

The term nonstandard was originally used by linguists to refer to language varieties that had previously been labeled with terms such as vulgar.• Non standard English differs from Standard English at the level of grammar ( it does not follow the grammar or pronunciation rules of standard language ).

3)      Accent

It is a pattern or manner of pronunciation

• An accent may identify the locality in which its speakers reside. (geographical or regional accent)

• It can indicate the socio-economic status of its speakers, their ethnicity or social class.

• Accent can also allow to determine the speaker’s native language.

• Accents typically differ in quality of voice, pronunciation of vowels and consonants, and stress pitch ( ex: intonation in Spanish and English questions and the speech of people from Ecuadorian Coast and Sierra regions )

4)      Dialect

Dialect can be defined as standard language, or Prestige Dialect used in business, education, and media. Dialects can be described at different levels according to variations

• Phonological ( differences in pronunciation , ex: in Spanish llave ( llave) – llave (shave)

• Morphological (word structure)

• Syntactic ( it can be represented by different word order in sentences,)

• Semantic (differences in meaning, ex:football – soccer )

• Grammatical ( differences in grammar structures may depend on social status of speakers, age , gender)

5)      Jargon

      Jargon is defined in relationship to a specific activity, profession, group, or event. Jargon: the language used by people who work in a particular area or who have a common interest. "Jargon" can be technical language, for instance, the language used in a given profession (medical jargon, nautical jargon, etc.)

      Jargon is used with these purpose : provide speakers of specialized domains with clear, well-defined, unambiguous terms to refer to their activities and provide speakers od a sub gruop  with a means of marking ingroup membershhip and exclude outsiders

6)      Slang

It refers to the use of informal words and expressions that are not considered standard in the speakers dialect or language. It may refer to things considered taboo or euphemisms “( The substitution of an inoffensive terms such as "passed away" for "died”) .

     

3.      Subfields and Branches of Sociolinguistics

            Sociolinguistics includes some branches, they are :

1)      Anthropological Linguistics,

2)      Dialectology,

3)      Discourse Analysis,

4)      Ethnography Of Speaking,

5)      Geolinguistics,

6)       Language Contact Studies,

7)      Secular Linguistics,

8)      The Social Psychology Of Language And

9)      The Sociology Of Language

4.      Languages in contact (contact linguistics)

            Language contact occurs when two or more languages or varieties interact. The study of language contact is called Contact Linguistics, forms of influence of one language on another:

a.          Borrowing of  Vocabulary: The most common way that languages influence each other is by exchange of words.

b.          Adoption of Other Language Features: The influence can go deeper, extending to the exchange of even basic characteristics of a language such as morphology and grammar.

c.          Language Shift: The result of the contact of two languages can be the replacement of one by the other (superstratum over substratum).

d.         Stratal Influence: when people retain features of the substratum as they learn the new language and pass these features on to their children, leading to the development of a new variety.

e.          Pidginization & Creolization: People with no common language interact, developing a pidgin, which may eventually become a native language.

5.      Sociolinguistic Methods

            The standard way in which sociolinguists investigate [language] use is by random sampling of the population. In classic cases, like those undertaken in New York by William Labov, or in Norwich by Peter Trudgill, a number of linguistic variables are selected, such as 'r' (variably pronounced according to where it occurs in a word) or 'ng' (variably pronounced /n/ or /ŋ/). Sections of the population, known as informants, are then tested to see the frequency with which they produce particular variants. The results are then set against social indices which group informants into classes, based on factors such as education, money, occupation, and so forth. On the basis of such data it is possible to chart the spread of innovations in accent and dialectregionally.  (Geoffrey Finch, Linguistic Terms and Concepts. Palgrave Macmillan, 2000).

6.      Sociolinguistic Competence

            Sociolinguistic competence enables speakers to distinguish among possibilities such as the following. To get someone's attention in English, each of the utterances

1. 'Hey!',
2. 'Excuse me!', and
3. 'Sir!' or 'Ma'am!'

            That  are grammatical and a fully meaningful contribution to the discourse of the moment, but only one of them may satisfy societal expectations and the speaker's preferred presentation of self. 'Hey!' addressed to one's mother or father, for example, often expresses either a bad attitude or surprising misunderstanding of the usually recognized social proprieties, and saying 'Sir!' to a 12-year-old probably expresses inappropriate deference.

FOUR ARTICLES REVIEW OF SEMANTICS

DESI NORI SAHPUTRI

A.      Demograph

Title          : Theories of Semantics: Merits and Limitations

Searcher 1: Saleh Mustafa Ramadan

From         : Al-Zaytoonah Private University of Jordan, Amman, Jordan.

Searcher 2: Taleb I. Ababneh

From         : Irbid National University- Jordan, Irbid, Jordan.

Pages        : 9

B.      Content

This article discuss about some of the well–known theories of meaning formulated in the last century. Mainly referential theory of meaning, non– referential theory of meaning and generative grammarian theory of meaning.

C.      Result/Finding

Meaning is the Relationship between Words and Objects

Greek philosophers say that the best way of indicating the meaning of a word is to refer to the object represented by that word.

Meaning is a Triangular Relationship

The symbol is the spoken or written word by picture; the reference is the information that the spoken or written shape of the word conveys to the reader/ hearer; and the referent is the thing or the object we talk about.

Bloomfield’s View of Meaning

Bloomfield (1933) said that the context of situation was an essential part of meaning, and the meaning of a linguistic form as the situation in which the speaker utters it and the response which it calls forth in the hearer.

The Non–Referential Theory of Meaning

The non–referential as suggested by its name doesn’t take into consideration the context of situations or the reference in determining what meaning is. There is a relationship between language and the outside world because language doesn’t exist in vacuum.

The Generative Grammarian Theory

This approach was based on the assumption that syntactic rules operate independently of meaning.

            Strength and Weakness

Strength : this article has many theories based on many experts. So it can convince the reader to use this article to get more their knowledge of semantic. Also, can make the reader more understand.

Weakness : this article just has few example. Actually readers more easy to understand with example rather than theory.

E.      Conclusion

The main principles of three well–known theories of meaning, namely the referential theory to meaning, the non–referential theory to meaning and the generative grammarian theory to meaning.

 NABILA FIRDA ASY’ARI

A.      Demograph

Title          : Semantics and Theories of Semantics

Author      : Abbas Bukhari

Pages        : 15

B.      Content

This article told the meaning of semantics and the ways to solve the difficulties in the study of meaning And discussed the different aspect of meaning, some term and distinction in semantics.

C.      Result/ Findings

How is language organized in order to be meaningful? This is the question we ask and attempt to answer at the level of semantics. Semantics is that level of linguistic analysis where meaning is analyzed. Meaning is related very closely to the human capacity to think logically and to understand. So when we try to analyze meaning, we are trying to analyse our own capacity to think and understand, our own ability to create meaning.

Meaning can be any of the following:

1. An intrinsic property of some thing

2. Other words related to that word in a dictionary

3. The connotations of a word

4. The thing to which the speaker of that word refers

5. The thing to which the speaker of that word should refer

6. The thing to which the speaker of that word believes himself to be referring

7. The thing to which the hearer of that word believes is being referred to.

D.     Strength and Weakness

Strength : this article served with complete the explanation, theories, and many examples of semantics. It can make the readers easier to understand.

Weakness :to much word in this article. So, i had got confused about this article.

E.      Conclusion

The problem of ‘meaning’ is quite difficult; it is because of its toughness that some linguists went on to the extent of excluding semantics from linguistics. When we talk about meaning, we are talking about the ability of human beings to understand one another when they speak. This ability is to some extent connected with grammar. Also, The sound patterns of language are studied at the level of phonology and the organization of words and sentences is studied at the level of morphology and syntax.

         SUSI LESTARI

A.      Demograph

Title          : Frame semantics a brief introduction

Author      : Diego Gavagna

From         : Aarhus University, 2013

Pages        : 12

B.      Content

This article give a comprehensive explanation on how meanings are structured and associated to words in a semantic structure. Then, how these provide access to our conceptual system, and the inventory of structured knowledge that we use to navigate the world.  It describes the relation between words that cannot just be ascribed to structural semantic relations like hyponymy, synonymy or antonym and the interdependencies between words based on background knowledge that humans acquire through experience and store in long-term memory.

C.      Result/Findings

Frame semantics can be thought of as the effort to understand what reason a speech community might have found for creating the category represented by the word, and to explain the word’s meaning by presenting and clarifying that reason.

From these word, beside the systemic interrelations between words and between the respective underlying concepts, emerges one further characteristic of frame semantics, namely, that knowledge is grounded in human interaction with others and with the world. Thus, frames are prior expectations and knowledge about the world that is the whole time strengthen, weakened and transformed according to the information our brain receives from the perceptive senses. 

So that boy would be defined as [human], [male], [young]. girl would be described as [human],[minus male], [young].The necessary and sufficient condition for it would be [human],[male], [adult], [minus married]. However this definition would include as bachelor also the Pope, proving that the accuracy of the definition is strongly undermined. 

D.      Strength and Weakness

Strength : The interest thing in this article is Frame semantics. It served with clear example that can make us will be easy to understand.

Weakness: the author said his dissertation is can not be considered exhaustive, but he have tried to give described the main terms of the theory.

E.       Conclusion

Many other authors have developed this framework, including the remarkable attempt by Lakoff & Johnson in describing the concept of reframing in political discourse based on frame semantics’ approach and the role of metaphors and metonymy in natural languages. Lakoff’s approach is particularly interesting because it is not just an analytical framework but very much also a set of practical tools usable in everyday life. The important contribution is proposed by Fauconier and Turner describing the characteristics of mental spaces that pose the ground for blending theory.

       ANNISA SEPTIANI

A.      Demograph

Title          : Modern Linguistics Semantics

Author      : Kate Kearns,Senior Lecturer, Department of Linguistics.

From         : University of Canterbury New Zealand.

Upload      : Pooja Saikia

B.      Content

This article concentrated on literal meaning, the content of word, and expressions which is fairly constant from one occasion of use to another. Also, this article discussed The kind of semantic/pragmatic.

C.      Result/Findings

This article present the kinds of meaning:

1.      Denotation and sense

The general point is that linguistic expressions are linked in virtue of their meaning to parts of the world around us, which is the basis of our use of language to convey information about reality. The denotation of an expression is the part of reality the expression is linked to.

The second way of giving the meaning of a word, commonly used in dictionaries, is to paraphrase it,

The most widely discussed form of the sense/denotation distinction is the means‘the blue train’ is to say that the French expression and the English expression have the same sense.sense/reference distinction. An expression which denotes just one individual is said to refer to that individual. Titles and proper names are common referring expressions

2.      Lexical and Structural Meaning

lexical meaning, which is the meaning of the individual words.

Structural meaning mainly comprises the meaning derived from the syntactic structure of an expression, for example: , which is the meaning of the way the words are combined.

3.      Categorematic expressions, which include the vast majority of words, are the descriptive words such as nouns, adjectives and verbs.

Stregth and Weakness

Strength : this article served clear explanation and so deeper. So, you can know more about semantics by this article. Then, the example and tips from the author can help us to easier understand.

Weakness : this article does not clear explain some sub topic. It can make misunderstanding in the reader.

E.      Conclusion

.Semantics provides the literal meaning of the elements I, forget, past tense, the and paper. And many examples we can found there. This journal has been explain about meaning such as semantics,kind, semantics,lexical and structural meaning and etc.