Syntax

Definisi syntax menurut beberapa pakar linguistics dunia:

"Syntax is the study of the principles and processes by which sentences are constructed in particular languages. Syntactic investigation of a given language has as its goal the construction of a grammar that can be viewed as a device of some sort for producing the sentences of the language under analysis."(Noam Chomsky, 2002:11)

Chomsky mengatakan bahwa syntax adalah mata pelajaran tentang prinsip-prinsip dan proses-proses dimana kalimat disusun dalam bahasa tertentu. Penelitian tentang syntax pada bahasa tertentu memiliki tujuannya tersendiri dimana susunan grammar  dapat dilihat sebagai alat untuk menghasilkan sebuah kalimat dalam sebuah bahasa. Pakar lain yang menjelaskan definisi syntax adalah Matthew, dikutip oleh Van Vallin dan LaPolla (1997:1), ia mengatakan:

‘The term ‘syntax’ is from the Ancient Greek syntaxis, a verbal noun which literally means “arrangement” or “setting out together”. Traditionally, it refers to the branch of grammar dealing with the ways in which words, with or without appropriate inflections, are arranged to show connections of meaning within the sentence.’

Matthew menjelaskan bahwa istilah syntax diambil dari noun verbal bahasa Yunani kuno yang secara literlek berarti “susunan”. Umumnya, syntax mengacu pada bidang grammar yang menerangkan tentang cara-cara bagaimana kata-kata, dengan ataupun tanpa infleksi, disusun untuk menunjukkan hubungan makna dalam kalimat. Senada dengan penjelasan Matthew, Van Valin (2001:1) mengungkapkan inti tentang syntax itu sendiri sebagai berikut:

‘First and foremost, syntax deals with how sentences are constructed, and users of human language employ a striking variety of possible arrangements of the element in sentences.’

Menurut Van Vallin hal pertama dan paling utama adalah bahwa syntax itu membahas bagaimana kalilmat itu disusun, dan syntax juga membahas bagaimana manusia sebagai umat yang berbahasa menggunakan berbagai variasi tentang susunan-susunan element tersebut dalam kalimat.

Dari beberapa pengertian, dapat disimpulkan bahwa Syntax adalah ilmu yang mempelajari struktur-struktur kalimat. Dalam syntax kita diajarkan susunan-susnan tata bahasa yang sesuai dengan aturan. Terdapat 2 bagian yang ada di syntax, yakni:

1. Phrase, adalah sekelompok kata yang mempunyai fungsi.
Phrase terbagi menjadi 5, yakni:

• Noun Phrase, adalah phrase yang berasal dari kata benda/kata yang bisa dihitung (noun).
• Verb Phrase, adalah phrase yang terdiri dari gabungan kata kerja bantu (axiliary verb) dan kata kerja (verb).
• Adjective Phrase, adalah phrase yang berasal dari kata sifat (adjective) dan digunakan untuk memberikan sifat untuk kata benda (nouns).
• Adverbial Phrase, adalah phrase yang berasal dari kata keterangan.
• Prepositional Phrase, adalah phrase gabungan antara kata depan (preposition) dan kata kerja (noun) maupun kata ganti (pronoun).

2. Clause, adalah bentuk kata yang berdiri sendiri sebagai suatu kalimat.
Clause terbagi menjadi 2, yakni:

• Independent Clause, adalah clause yang memiliki struktur lengkap.
• Dependent Clause, adalah clause yang memiliki struktur tidak lengkap.

Sumber :
http://www.englishindo.com/2011/01/apa-sih-syntax-itu.html?m=1
http://linguisticbydebbymaitrisia.blogspot.ae/2016/04/syntax.html?m=1

Phonology

What is phonology ?

Phonology is a branch of linguistics concerned with the systematic organization of sounds in languages. It has traditionally focused largely on the study of the systems of phonemes in particular language (and therefore used to be also called phonemics, or phonematics), but it may also cover any linguistics analysis either at a level beneath the word (including syllabe,onset and rime, articulatory gestures, articulatory features, mora, etc.) or at all levels of language where sounds is considered to be structured for conveying linguistics meaning. Phonology also includes the study of equivalent organizational systems in sign languages.

 

Phonetics vs. phonology

 

Phonetics deals with the production of speech sounds by humans, often without prior knowledge of the language being spoken. Phonology is about patterns of sounds, especially different patterns of sounds in different languages, or within each language, different patterns of sounds in different positions in words etc. 

Phonology as grammar of phonetic patterns
 The consonant cluster /st/ is OK at the beginning, middle or end of words in English.

• At beginnings of words, /str/ is OK in English, but /ftr/ or /tr/ are not (they are ungrammatical).
• /tr/ is OK in the middle of words, however, e.g. in "ashtray".
• /tr/ is OK at the beginnings of words in German, though, and /ftr/ is OK word-initially in Russian, but not in English or German. 

For example, the glottal stop [] occurs in both English and Arabic BUT ...

In English, at the beginning of a word, [] is a just way of beginning vowels, and does not occur with consonants. In the middle or at the end of a word, [] is one possible pronunciation of /t/ in e.g. "pat" [pa].

In Arabic, // is a consonant sound like any other (/k/, /t/ or whatever): [íktib] "write!", [daíia] "minute (time)", [a] "right"

Phonemes and allophones, or sounds and their variants

The vowels in the English words "cool", "whose" and "moon" are all similar but slightly different. They are three variants or allophones of the /u/ phoneme. The different variants are dependent on the different contexts in which they occur. Likewise, the consonant phoneme /k/ has different variant pronunciations in different contexts. Compare:
 

keep	/kip/	The place of articulation is fronter in the mouth	[k+h]
cart	/kt/	The place of articulation is not so front in the mouth	[kh]
coot	/kut/	The place of articulation is backer, and the lips are rounded	[khw]
seek	/sik/	There is less aspiration than in initial position	[k`]
scoop	/skup/	There is no aspiration after /s/	[k]

These are all examples of variants according to position (contextual variants). There are also variants between speakers and dialects.

source:

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phonology

http://www.phon.ox.ac.uk/jcoleman/PHONOLOGY1.htm

A Linguistics Primer for Malaysians. Loga Mahesan Baskaran. University of Malay Press. 2005